The Star Furud.

The star Zeta Canis Majoris, notably known as Furud, draws its name from the Arabic vocabulary Al-Furud. Which means the bright single ones or solitary ones It is also known as the Ape which refers to the surrounding tiny stars (Allen, 1889). This paper will centre on the star Furud, facts about it, and how the star and the constellation that it resides came about their names.

Furud is a third magnitude star, sandwiched between the Greater dogs bottom triangle, the dove (Columba) and Adhara. Furud finds itself in close proximity to the Milky way making it dimmed by interstellar dust particles. This necessitates a correction to be made in order to calculate its luminosity. When this is done and a further correction is made with regard to ultra violet light radiated at 27500 Kelvin we obtain its luminosity as 4020 times that of the sun. This results in a solar radius of 4.6. The star has a rotation period of less than 9 days this is due to equatorial rotational speed of 25 kilometers per second.  Stellar composition theory, leads to a mass almost eight times that of the sun, and depicts the star to be more or less half way through its hydrogen fusing lifecycle of just 32 million years.

There are rumors that the luminosity of Furud varies although no evidence is forwarded to justify this. Perhaps its proximity to the Milky Way may have something to do with this. Despite its name suggesting Furud to be a solitary star, the star is a spectroscopic binary that has a low mass companion which shifts the star front and back as the two orbit over a period of six hundred and seventy five days which is approximately equal to one year and eight months.

Furud is not a solitary star. It has a lower mass spectroscopic companion that has it shift back and forth resulting in the pair orbiting over a period of 675 days. When a guess of two solar masses is considered it gives a separation of 3.2 million astronomical units (60 Suns distance from Jupiter), a soaring eccentricity of 0.57 shifting the stars between 5.1 and1.4 Astronomic Units apart. Furud is dangerously close to the mass threshold above which a star explodes in to supernovae but there are chances that one day it will form a planetary nebula followed by a gigantic white dwarf. Its proximity to the Milky Way makes it to be a bit dim by interstellar dust, that is, by 0.16 magnitudes (Kale).
T
he constellation, within which Farud resides, is known as Canis Major there are numerous stories that have been told and written with respect to this constellation. Some of them are highlighted below
CANIS MAJOR The Great Dog. This constellation is average in size, what makes it popular is the fact that it is home to the brightest star, Sirius, the Dog Star. (Sasaki 32). From the ancient times, Canis Major is considered one of the Dogs that the Giant Orion took along to his hunting escapades. However, some people claim that the dog attained its name in honor of given by Aurora to Cephalus considered to be his most flexible species. The Legend states that Cephalus raced the dog against a fox which was applauded to be the fastest among all animal species. They raced for a considerable amount of time and none of them emerged a victor, Jupiter was bowled over   by the speed displayed by the hound that he decided immortalize the dog and offered him among the stars. Another story however, asserts that it was Icarius dog. The story is different among the Scandinavians who regard the Dog as Sigurds while the ancient Indians knew it as The Deer slayer.

Arabic astronomers called the constellation, Al-Kalb-Al- Akabar which means the greater Dog, and among the ancient Christians the star, Euphratean star list, Canis major is designed as the Dog of the Sun., the Christians perceived it to be Tobias Dog or St. Davids (Olcott, 95).

According to Speer, Furud was a dancing star who danced with joy sending all over the sky and communicated love messages to those below. But unlike others, the star Furud was lonely. Despite all the brightness in him, there was a vacuum inside him that could never be filled no matter how vigorously he danced. The love Furud  showered to others   through  his dance was never reciprocated and for this reason he grew dull day by day until he could not do it no more, he desperately summoned the last brightness left in him converted it into a spirit kiss sent it to the air from where it descended to earth, Once it touched the earth, the kiss converted into a gentle breeze that touched people and animals lives with love But his love was still never reciprocated, thus the sadness and loneliness in him did not cease. Then one day Furud found a beautiful maiden and blew his spirit kiss all over her, immediately she recognized the spirit was different and this made Furud overly excited. That is the legend behind how the star Furud attained its name.

Photosphere.

The Photosphere is lowest layerzone located in the atmosphere of the Sun. It emits the light that is seen by the naked eye when we look up at the sun. The photosphere is just about 300 miles (500 kilometers) thick however the light that we see mostly comes from lowest part of its layer which is  about 100 miles (150 kilometers) thick.  This part is often referred to  as the suns surface. At the lowest layer of the photosphere, the temperature is 6400 Kelvin, at the top it is around 4400 Kelvin.The photosphere consists of numerous granules, which are the tops of granulation cells. A typical granule exists for 15 to 20 minutes. The average density of the photosphere is less than one-millionth of a gram per cubic centimeter. This may seem to be an extremely low density, but there are tens of trillions to hundreds of trillions of individual particles in each cubic centimeter.

Chromosphere

After the photosphere the next zone is the Chromosphere. Its main characteristic is a rise in temperature, which reaches just about 10,000 Kelvin in some places and 20,000 Kelvin in others.The Chromosphere was first detected during total eclipses of the sun. The spectrum  of the chromosphere is visible after the moon covers the photosphere, but before it covers the chromosphere. This time frame lasts only a few seconds. The emission lines in the spectrum seem to flash suddenly into visibility, so the spectrum is known as the flash spectrum. The chromosphere is apparently made up entirely of spike-shaped structures called spicules (SPIHK yoolz). A normal spicule is about 600 miles (1,000 kilometers) across and up to 6,000 miles (10,000 kilometers) high. The density of the chromosphere is about 10 billion to 100 billion particles per cubic centimeter.

Transition region

Between the two zones of the chromospheres which ranges to about 20,000 Kelvin and the Corona which is hotter due to its temperature being  500,000 Kelvin is a region of intermediate temperatures which is known as the chromosphere-corona transition region, in simpler terms - the transition region. The transition region receives a lot of its energy from the overlying corona not only that the region emits most of its light in the ultraviolet spectrum. The thickness of the region varies from a few hundred to a few thousand miles or kilometers. In some places, relatively cool spicules extend from the chromosphere high into the solar atmosphere. It has been theorized that there maybe nearby areas where coronal structures reach down close to the photosphere.

Corona

Corona is the hottest part of the suns atmosphere wherein the temperature exceeds that of 500,000 K. The corona consists of structures such as loops and streams of ionized gas. The structures connect vertically to the solar surface, and magnetic fields that come from inside the sun mold them. The temperature of any given structure created by there methods varies along each field line. Closer to the surface, the temperature is typical of the temperatures found in the photosphere. At higher temperature levels, it has chromospheric values, then values of the transition region and then finally coronal values.

The temperature of the part of the corona nearest to the solar surface  is about 1 million to 6 million Kelvin, and the density is about 100 million to 1 billion particles per cubic centimeter. The temperature reaches tens of millions of Kelvins when a flare occurs.

Sunspots

Sunspots are dark, often roughly circular features on the solar surface. They form where denser bundles of magnetic field lines from the solar interior break through the surface.

The Sun in our solar system has been burning brightly for the past 5 billion years however its rate of burning through its nuclear fuel has not been a steady one.  The Sun actually goes through two phases a quiet phase and an active phase the only difference between the two is that during the suns active phase it release only 1 more energy than when its in its  quiet phase. An easy way to tell when the sun is going through an active or quiet phase is to look at the amount of sunspots evident on the suns surface. A large increase in sunspots indicates that the sun is undergoing its active phase while relatively few sunspots is indicative of a quiet phase.

One affect this has on us is that even though during its active phase the sun releases only 1 more energy it is sufficient to cause a drastic change in the atmosphere of our planet. A 1 increase in the amount of energy reaching us from the sun actually causes a warming of the ozone in the upper atmosphere. All this extra energy actually causes the production of more ozone which traps more heat and create even more ozone in a rather cyclical cycle. The result is stronger winds which reduces the amount of cloud cover over the Pacific Ocean which would then cause it to absorb more energy from the sun.  The result would be a warming from the sky and from the sea thus increasing the overall temperature of the planet.

Why Pluto is No longer a Planet.

In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) made a decision to remove Pluto, which from the time of its discovery in 1930 had been considered a planet, from the list of planets and re-classified it to be a Dwarf Planet. This move, as has been explained by Seeds and Backman (2009) was made based on changes made by the IAU on the criteria that an object should meet in order for it to be defined as a planet. It was also based on existing similarities between Pluto and other objects in the Kuiper belt (p. 191)
This article is therefore an attempt at analyzing the criteria that was used by the IAU to demote Plutos status. It will also discuss Plutos current classification as a Dwarf planet and attempt to identify and discuss other bodies of the same status.

Why Pluto is No longer a Planet
During the period before 1930, the solar system was believed to consist of eight planets with Neptune being the last planet in the system. Despite there being suspicion of the existence of post-Neptunian objects, and there having been a number of close calls, this status remained until February 18th 1930 when 22 year old Clyde Tombaugh, an American astronomer discovered what later became known as planet Pluto (Weintraub, 2007 137).

Controversy over Tomaughs discovery being really that of a planet began soon after the announcement.  Questions started to emerge over the size of the planet and its inability to exert significant gravitational influences. This was especially because by the 1935 the size of the planet together with Charon its largest moon had been reduced to almost one five-hundredth the size of the earths moon.
Figure 1 below shows Pluto together with its moon Charon, Nix and Hydra. Charon, which is Plutos largest moon together with Pluto weigh less than the earths moon.

Figure 1 Pluto and its moons

The planets size had been predicted at its discovery to be 6.6 Earth masses. It however turned out in the late 1930s to range between 0.1 to 1 Earth masses. Its smaller size therefore implied that Pluto is unlikely to have produced the gravitational effects on Uranus and Neptune that had led to the prediction of its existence in the first place. 

These doubts were further compounded by the discovery of the Kuiper belt in the 1900s. The Kuiper belt, named after astronomer Gerald Kuiper, consists of comet-like debris that forms around the edge of the solar system (Hamilton, 2002). The debris objects on the Kuiper belt share numerous similarities, further buttressing the argument that Pluto may not really be a planet.

First off, Pluto is composed of icy material like comets in the Kuiper belt. This is unlike the other eight planets in the solar system which are either rocky or gaseous. The eccentricity of Plutos orbit also raises questions over its planetary status.  For twenty years of its 249 year orbit, Pluto is closer to the Sun than Neptune and during this period, it becomes the solar systems eighth planet. This irregular orbit is shared by other objects in the Kuiper belt.  These objects therefore orbit the sun twice while Neptune orbits the sun three times.  These Kuiper belt objects are called Plutinos.

The Plutinos are caught in resonances with Neptune because as Uranus and Neptune migrated outward after their formation, Neptunes orbital resonances swept up small objects that resulted in the Plutinos getting caught up in the 32 resonances while other Kuiper belt objects are caught up in other reisonances.
On August 24th 2006, astronomers meeting in the Czech Republic during the International Astronomical Union (IAU) General meeting voted that Pluto does not meet the criterion for a fully fledged planet. This followed the discovery in January 2005 of Xena, the largest dwarf planet. This discovery forced the IAU to reconsider its definition of what a planet is and whether or not Pluto fit into the definition.

In the discourse regarding whether or not Pluto is a planet, it is imperative to first identify the criteria that a body must satisfy in order for it to be defined as a planet. According to Wentraub (2007), the classical definition of a planet was that planets are objects that are too small to generate energy through nuclear fusion but still large enough for them to spherical. The object must also have a primary orbit around a star (p. 185).

While the second criterion is quite clear, the first one requires a more in-depth analysis. The ability to generate energy through nuclear fusion is what distinguishes a planet from a star. A star is made up of hydrogen and helium which through the proton-proton chain process that fuses four hydrogen protons into one helium nucleus transforms small amounts of mass into energy. In this process, intense gravitational pressure and temperatures cause hydrogen nuclei to fuse with the helium causing the transformation of matter into energy. As the density of the gas increases, so does the pressure heating up the core and eventually nuclear fusion occurs.

Planets on the other hand cannot generate a nuclear fusion reaction and thus do not emit energy. Some planets like Jupiter and Saturn are made up of hydrogen and helium gas but cannot be classified as stars since they are not massive enough to generate the high amount of pressure and temperatures required to trigger a nuclear fusion reaction.

Secondly, this criteria implies that a planet should be large enough that its shape is not determined by its molecular and intermolecular forces but by the force of gravity.  It is gravity that shapes the planet into a sphere (p.186).

Pluto orbits the sun. It is also big enough to have enough gravity which has made it spherical. While this may qualify it as a planet, a number of arguments including the ones mentioned earlier have emerged to claim otherwise.  Astronomers have argued that in order for a star to be defined as a planet, it should not share its space with other objects (p. 109). Pluto is too small and therefore does not have enough gravity to clear other objects from its orbit. It however shares its characteristics with other objects in the solar system that have been classified as Dwarf planets (Boyle 2009).

According to Boyle (2009), after lengthy deliberations and discussions, the IAU made a number of changes to the classical definitions of objects in the solar system that in effect demoted Pluto from being a planet. The first and most important amendment in definition was that of a planet.

According to the IAU, planets are celestial bodies that are in orbit around the sun, have sufficient gravity to assume a hydrolic static equilibrium that make them spherical and have cleared the neighborhood around their orbits. Figure 2 below shows the eight planets in order of proximity to the sun.  Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are the rocky planets while Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn and Jupiter are gaseous planets with Jupiter taking its place as the last planet of the solar system.
Figure 2 The eight planets in order of proximity to the sun

The IAU defines Dwarf planets as celestial bodies similar to planets that are found in orbits around the sun. They have sufficient mass for their self gravity and for them to assume a nearly round shape. On the contrary, they have not cleared their orbit and they are not satellites. All other objects apart from satellites are therefore referred to as Small Solar System Bodies (p. 216).  This then categorizes Pluto as a Dwarf planet.
In order to fully comprehend this new categorization, it is important to first see how this came to be.  As had been earlier mentioned, from its discovery, Pluto has been riddled with controversy.  It was however not until 1992, when astronomers started discovering other objects in Plutos neighborhood that even more serious questions were raised. It was discovered that Pluto is neighbored by numerous icy bodies the size of asteroids. This constitutes the Kuiper belt within which Pluto is found.

According to Philip and Philip (2006), Mark Brown discovered in 2005 an object within the Kuiper belt that is much larger than Pluto. The object, 2003 UB313 or Xena, being larger than Pluto was also assumed to be a planet.  Based on this, other objects in the Kuiper belt could also be considered to be planets.
The IAU did not accept this broad definition of planets and resolved to classify these objects that are distinguished by their failure to clear the neighborhood around their orbits as Dwarf planets.  Pluto fits into this category of Dwarf planets because it has a weak gravity that cannot enable it to clear out its neighborhood on the Kuiper belt either by taking in or pushing aside competing objects (Philip  Philip, 2006).
Figure 2 below shows the solar system with the planets and dwarf planets. The figure shows the dwarf planets as being significantly smaller in size than other planets in the solar system. Eris is seen to be the largest dwarf planet.

Lichtenberg (2007) has noted that Ceres, which is also the largest asteroid, coexists with thousands of other asteroids in the asteroid belt which is found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It has a mass of about 16000 that of the earth (p. 253). According to Boyle (2009), Ceres is widely thought to be made up of a rocky core and a mantle consisting of ice that is covered up by an outer crust of dust and clay.
This composition of Ceres has made many scientists to believe that it may be an embryonic planet.  This means that its development was put on hold before it could become a planet (p. 172).  Ceres has therefore, based on its composition for a long time been theorized to be harboring water and therefore may have life.
Eris, another dwarf planet in the solar system was discovered in 2005 by an American astronomer, Mike Brown. It was formerly known as 2003 UB313 and nicknamed Xena after the Greek goddess of conflict.  It was later officially named Eris. This dwarf planet is larger than Pluto and has twenty seven percent more mass. It is also three times further from the sun than Pluto (Shipman, Wilson  Todd 2007 p. 460). When Eris was first discovered, it was declared the solar systems tenth planet due to its size (Esnworth, 2009 p. 99).
According to OLeary (2009), Eris orbits the sun in a region beyond the Kuiper belt. This region is referred to as the scattered disk. Objects within the scattered disk are thought to have originated from the Kuiper belt and were ejected by the gravitational influence of Neptunes outward ejection.  Eris has one moon that is called Dysnomia (p. 66).

Little is known about the other two dwarf planets in the solar system. These are Makemake and Haumea. Makemake is named after the fertility god and creator of the Ropanui people.  It was declared a dwarf planet in July 2008. Makemake is a lot like Pluto and has its surface covered with frozen methane.
Haumea on the other hand is named after the Hawaiian goddess of fertility and childbirth.  This dwarf planet is cigar shaped with a four hour rotation period and a surface made up water ice (Koupelis, 2010292). There could be forty or more other dwarf planets in the solar system that are yet to be discovered.

The demotion of Pluto from its planetary status to that of a Dwarf planet was controversial and divisive of the Astronomers community with some seeking for the decision to be overturned. It was also not very well received by the public largely on sentimental grounds. Most importantly, it has brought forth important questions that present a challenge to the AMU. One such question is whether it is right for planets to be judged based on their size. Pluto and other dwarf planets have missed the mark of planetary distinction based almost solely on this criterion, is this enough

These questions will likely be answered if and when NASAs New Horizon and Dawn space missions reach Pluto with its moons and Ceres respectively, as they have been planned in 2015. The success of these missions will give insight into the nature of post-Neptunian objects like Pluto and other objects on the Kuiper belt.

Is interstellar travel possible What would be the goal.

Interstellar travel is the travel between stars, either in a manned spacecraft or an unmanned spacecraft. There have been many theoretical approaches to this concept. There is a possibility of an unmanned travel but the concept of manned travel will take time to kick off because of the difficulties and the travel time involved. Here we discuss the possibilities and the pros and cons of Interstellar Travel.  

Interstellar travel has been the subject of discussion for decades. Science fiction always showed us the way of interstellar travel but these are still fiction. Warp Drives and hyperspace Engines have been the fantasy for the readers of science fiction literature and cinema, but still remain a fantasy. The practical implementation of these devices still isnt in the reach of todays technology and requires far more advanced levels of science and technology.

In the science fiction literature there have been methods where the scientists used generation-ships for interstellar travel. These mean that the crew of the ship lived and die on board and one of the generations will reach the destination. There have been theories where this was stated to be possible but at present is still a distant dream. This is mainly due to the difficulties involved in staying in the space for a large amount of time and the effects of those travels on human health.

There also have been theories that stated the use of concepts such as travelling in sleeper ships. These ships have a mechanism in which the travellers are put in a state of suspended animation. Suspended animation means that the passengers will be put in an inert state and will be put to rest. The maneuvering of the ship will be done by the computers on board. Once the ship reaches the destination, these people will be awakened with their age remaining the same since they started the journey.

All these theories still lack logic because there is no way for a human to be put in a state of suspended animation. The level of technology that is required to do that is still not reached. There have been numerous scientists who have written various papers on this matter and most of the papers still state that manned interstellar travel is still a dream. There is a possibility to achieve the goal by increasing the speed of the spacecraft.

Increasing the spacecraft speed would require the use of advanced propelling systems. There has been a good amount of research done on the concept of the use of nuclear engines. But the dangers posed by the nuclear radiation just are too damaging to even think of using such a mechanism. Even by the use of these engines and other technological advancements interstellar travel still will take years of time larger than a single human life span.

There have been many probes to the distant planets of the solar system such as Uranus and to the dwarf planets such as Pluto. These have taken considerable amount of time and some space crafts have stopped functioning before they reached the boundaries of the solar system.

One must then think of the pros and cons before such a travel is attempted. There may be the possibility of an unmanned probe. The nearest star to the solar system is the Proxima Centauri. This is about 4.3 light years away from the solar system. The fastest ever outward probe was Voyager  I. this is now moving at a speed of 10.5 milessec away from the solar system. This is about 118,000 times the speed of light.

Voyager  I was launched about 32 years ago in September 1977.  As of August 28th 09, this craft is about 10.312 billion miles away from the sun. This is 110.94 Astronomical Units. At this speed the journey to the nearest star Proxima Centauri will take about 72,000 years. This spans a 1000 generations and is virtually impossible at the technology that we have. This journey can be reduced by the use of nuclear pulse propulsion. 

Nuclear pulse propulsion is a theoretical concept that is still to be tested in a large scale. Nuclear pulse propulsion is achieved by having a series of nuclear explosions at the rear of the space craft that would accelerate the space craft to really high speeds, as much as 5.4107 kmhr. this is 5 of the speed of the light. At this rate of acceleration the space ship would be subjected to high G-Forces. This will virtually not sustainable by man.

There was a project that was designed by NASA called Project Orion. This was based on the nuclear pulse propulsion technology. There are three types of nuclear pulse propulsion systems. One is thermonuclear Pulse propulsion, second is the atomic fission pulse propulsion. The third is the Matter-Antimatter Pulse propulsion, which is completely a theoretical concept.

The thermonuclear fission can reach speeds up to 8-10 of the speed of light. The atomic pulse propulsion will reach up to 3-5 of the speed of light. The theoretical matter-antimatter drives can achieve 50-80 of the speed of light. The speeds at which this propulsion system can accelerate the craft are very high. The thermonuclear Pulse propulsion can reach Proxima Centauri which is at a distance of 4.23 light years in 44 years. Here is a table that shows the distances of the nearest stars from our solar system.

The Orion spacecraft was designed in a manner where small nuclear explosives were shot from the rear of the spacecraft and exploded about 30m behind. The explosion energy provided momentum to the spacecraft pusher plate. This pusher plate was coated with graphite oil to prevent damage. The pusher plate then transferred the momentum to the shock absorbers that transformed the sudden push to a gentle push that gave the ship 1g acceleration.
    
This design was lauded and criticized by many. The main problem this design faced was nuclear fallout. This was due to the radioactive debris that will fly out of the rear of the spacecraft that will spread in all directions in the space. This was the most serious of all problems. There were many theoretical propositions that claimed to reduce the fallout to negligible levels, but none could be tested anywhere near the vicinity of the earth.

Fig SEQ Figure  ARABIC 1 Orion Space Craft

The Project was apparently called off due to the signing of the PTBT (Partial test ban treaty). There were more projects that were thought of. These include Project Daedalus and Project Longshot. But these projects never passed the drawing board and are still on paper. These require significant advances in technology and science.

Project Daedalus required advanced technology and Project Longshot was designed using the present technology and used Nuclear Fission Reactor for the propelling system, and was slated to achieve speeds up to 4.5 of the speed of light and was slated to reach Alpha Centauri B in about 100 years. The project has its own issues due to the use of nuclear fuel. If there is a way that will minimize the radiations and their effects or even nullify them, we have a really great way of utilizing the nuclear weapons in a constructive manner.

Fig2 An artists conception of the British Interplanetary Society design for Project Daedalus

There have been many debates as to whether the interstellar probes are really necessary especially with their long travel durations (at todays technology) and the significant problems these probes present. There may be a case where a probe is launched with todays technology and might be overtaken by a later probe that will be launched with significantly advanced technology.

There are debates which state that a probe that cant reach the destination in 50 years or less should not be started at all. This is partially correct because if there is a significant technological advancement in the future that may overtake a present probe, the older probe will be rendered useless. This involves millions of dollars of investment. So scientists advocate the design and implementation of better propelling systems with the investment of those dollars rather than sending a space craft on a mission that will take thousands or hundreds of years to reach its destination.

The discoveries that an interstellar probe may find are many. But considering the difficulties in the launching and deployment of the space craft, the investment of the money in designing a better space craft might sound better. This is because there are more space explorations that are more interesting and plausible than an interstellar probe. Seriously an interstellar probe at this time and with this technology is a little awkward. If we can wait for a few more years, the advancements in the technology will enable us to build better systems and perhaps the problems can be solved effectively.

Interstellar travel is certainly possible, but with the current technology a manned mission is impossible and an unmanned probe may take many years to finish the journey. NASA is trying to do some important research space ship that uses the Light Sails as the propelling systems. This technology is of great importance and has lot of advantages. This may be the future of the propelling space crafts into space in the near future.

Geoffery A. Landis, of NASAs Glenn Research Center, says that a laser-powered interstellar space craft that uses light sails could possibly be developed within fifty years, using new methods of space travel. I think that ultimately were going to do it, its just a question of when and who Landis said in an interview. Rockets are too slow to send humans on interstellar missions. Instead, he envisions interstellar craft with gigantic sails, propelled by laser light to about one-tenth the speed of light. It would take such a ship about 43 years to reach Alpha Centauri, if it passed through the system. Slowing down to stop at Alpha Centauri could increase the trip to 100 years.

The goal of the future interstellar probes must be to seek greater knowledge of the universe and to use that knowledge in a constructive manner. These probes must also try to find any planet that can harbor life, just like our earth and they must look for any Extra Terrestrial Intelligence. This will help our cause and will usher us into a new era of space technology.

Just few decades ago, a trip to America from Australia could take well about 9-13 months via the sea route. Now it is scaled down to the matter of hours by aircrafts. People then only had the dream to fly, but wright brothers made it a reality. People also ridiculed the thought of sending satellites into the earth orbit. But now that is a common phenomenon. Science has answered each and every problem of man in a way it could. It is up to us to use the science in greater interest of mankind.

Similarly space travel can seem a bit ridiculous now, but as they say history repeats itself, we might just see NASA or a combined effort of the space competitors launch a manned mission to Alpha Centauri in a few decades. The problems space travel poses are many. There has to be a way man can endure the un-earthly life during the journey and in the alien atmosphere of the destination.

There will also be a way that will reduce the round-trip delay of information transmission. For suppose we reached Alpha Centauri, an information broadcasted there will take 4.23 years to reach the earth. There may be lot of changes that might have to be made in order reduce the time.

There also has been a wide spread discussion on the near light speed travel. Travelling faster than the light is theoretically impossible and will violate the laws of physics. Near light speed has been achieved in particle accelerators in CERN. Those particles are sub-atomic particles like positrons and electrons. These accelerators require lot of energy and investment. Translation of that acceleration to larger bodies like space crafts is impossible now.

But as science and scientists have been repeatedly turning possible to impossible, we can hope that this problem is resolved and we can also travel into space in lesser time and greater payloads can be taken along. It may be a few centuries away where we can start to colonize the outer space and start living there, but as of now it is only possible in dreams and in fiction.

This does not mean we cant send an unmanned probe to the nearest star at this point of time. We have achieved travel to Pluto and further regions of space and Voyager-I is already in the far end region in the solar system. It is scheduled to travel out of the solar system in a few years. This has been achieved in a few years (the craft was launched in 1977).

Use of Artificial Intelligence is a big plus in the Interstellar probes. If we achieve the propelling system that can be used to travel in lesser time, we can use Robots to control the equipment and to transfer the data. The problem faced with unmanned travel is the time that will take to transmit the information from the destination. Project Longshot had this vision. A report from the project stated that

Due to the great distance at which the probe will operate, positive control from earth will be impossible due to the great time delays involved. This fact necessitates that the probe be able to think for itself. In order to accomplish this, advances will be required in two related but separate fields, artificial intelligence and computer hardware. AI research is advancing at a tremendous rate. Progress during the last decade has been phenomenal and there is no reason to expect it to slow any time soon. Therefore, it should possible to design a system with the required intelligence by the time that this mission is expected to be 1aunched.

This report was written way back in the late 80s. There has been a significant advance in the area of artificial intelligence and we might soon see an advanced version of project Longshot being launched. This will require a way to minimize the effects of nuclear radioactive radiation and wastes.  Nuclear fusion can be an answer to this, but controlled nuclear fusion isnt still achieved on such a large scale. However the rate at which the technology is advancing we can say proudly that interstellar travel is just a matter of a few more decades.

The Star Acamar.

Acamar (pronounced AY-kuh-mar) is found in the constellation Eridanus. It is one of the brightest stars in the constellation Eridanus.  The Acamar star, also known as Theta Eridani ( Eri   Eridani) is a double star, consisting of an A4 sub-giant and an Al dwarf. The two can be described as  the gems in the sky  due to their brilliance. Although both were born as white dwarfs, the A4 has since become a sub-giant. The A4 sub-giant will however return to its dwarf status shortly before the end of its life. Figure 1 shows the Acamar.
                            
Fig 1 The Acamar star from Sky-Map

Origin of the Name

According to Richard Allen, the constellation Eridanus derives it name from a folklore about the river Padus or Po in which Phaeton fell when Jupiter slew him with a thunderbolt. This was a punishment for setting the world on fire by misguiding the chariot of Phoebus, his father. Allen reports that Eridanus represents the river Padus (219). Acamar, which means end of the river, was called Achernar in the classical times. Achernar is derived from the Arabic word Al Ahir Al Nahr. This name was given because this star was the very visible at the end of the river Eridanus (298). Achernar is now used to refer to alpha Eridanus. Acamar is a double star with an apparent magnitude of 3.24 for the A4 and a combined apparent magnitude of 2.88 (Sky-Map). The attractive pair of stars appears to be close to each other as seen from the earth (Burnham 889).

Properties of Acamar

Burnham reports that the star has a Right Ascension of 02h58m15.70s and a Declination of -40 o1817.0 (889). The main star, a sub-giant called A4 is white and hotter than the sun. The giant and dwarf stars are separated by an 8.31 arc seconds. The dwarf is also hotter than the sun but with a lower luminosity as compared to A4. Acamar has a parallax of 28.00 (11.00) mas. Figure 2 shows the position of Acamar in the Eridanus constellation.

Other Properties of Acamar are as shown in the tables below
Proper motion (J2000)Right Ascension -0.045 arcsecaDeclination 0.019 arcsecaRadial velocity12 kmsTrigonometric parallax0.035 arcsecGalactic coordinates. (B1950)Longitude 247.5Latitude -60.4GCI unit vector (J2000)X 0.43325Y 0.35145Z -0.46853Separation between  the brightest and the second brightest component8.3 arcsecDifference in magnitude between the brightest and second brightest component1.1Rotational Velocity74 kms
ComponentMagnitudeSpectral classCatalogue(s)Name(s)A3.24A2Acamar, q1Eridani, HR 897, HD 18622, SAO 216113B4.35A2q2Eridani, HR 898, HD 18623, SAO 216114 Tables Properties of Acamar from Hoffleit and Warren v.50.
According to Lang (28) one parsec  3.261633 light years and Acamar is 50 parsecs from the sun. That converts to about 150 lights years away from earth. The luminosities of the A4 and A1 Acamar stars are 50 and 20 suns respectively. The radial velocity of the giant star is about 7 miles per second which is faster than the dwarf motion at 12 miles per second (Burnham 1978).

Acamars Life Cycle
Acamars life cycle, like that of any other star, depends on the rate at which it burns hydrogen in its core (Hoffleit and Warren 50). According to Kaler the A4 sub-giant, which is 2.6 times heavier than the sun, is burning on a dead helium core and is expanding to a red giant hood. The A1, which is 2.4 times the mass of the sun, is in a stable hydrogen fusion stage but will inevitably follow the A4.

He notes that the difference in mass gives the A1 a longer life. He further notes that the two of them will retire as dead high density stars that will have shrunk to about the size of the earth.

As stars burn, helium accumulates in the core of the stars causing an increase in the rate of fusion as well as the rate of gravitational self-compressional rates. This speeds up the consumption of the hydrogen supply, which is the source of fuel for the stars, causing them to cool down. The increased gravitation leads to the shrinking of the stars.
The Binary Period
   
The Binary Period is the time taken by binary stars to revolve around each other. The two stars revolve around each other because of the gravitational force that occurs between them. The force holds them together preventing them from escaping each other.

Energy Generation by Acamar

The Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Pathway is used by Acamar to generate energy (North 609). Energy generation occur in a 6 step sequence whereby 4 hydrogen protons are converted into one helium proton with positrons, neutrinos and some high energy level gamma rays. The energy is therefore in the gamma rays and particles produced in this process as shown in figure 3.
  
 Acamar is no doubt a brilliant double star and is easily visible from earth without visual aids. The star, also referred to as Theta Eri, is found at the south east side of Eridanus. Its position makes it possible to see it from the Southern Hemisphere.
The Acamar is as binary meaning it is comprised of two stars, the larger A4 and the lesser A1. Both of the stars are however larger and massive than the sun.
   
The knowledge of this star and others in the constellation Eridanus provides a better understanding on the formation and the life cycle of stars. The Acamar also provides information on the existence and life cycle of the binary stars.

Supermassive Black Holes.

For a long time, Black Holes have only existed in the realm of scientific theory. Astronomers have long suspected unique and peculiar forces of nature behind the formation of universe but there has been not any scientific proof that clearly explained how galaxies are formed.  However, one of the most important discoveries in astronomy was made in June 2000 when scientists discovered the Supermassive Black Holes (BBC).  This was one of the most promising discoveries that would help in answering a number of questions in cosmology, most important in explaining how galaxies are formed.  Supermassive Black Holes give the ultimate answer to the question of how and from where do galaxies arise from.  Scientists now believe that the forces of pure destruction encoded in Supermassive Black Holes give rise to galaxies which means they are at the heart of the creation of stars, planets and ultimately all life forms in the universe.

Supermassive Black Holes are quite extraordinary such that for a long time, many people have doubted their existence. The basic idea behind the Supermassive Black Holes was considered more like fiction than reality due to the fact that these holes are almost the size of the solar system (BBC 2000).  On the base of their size, it was presumed that they would just destroy the basic fabric that holds the universe together.  However, these assumptions have changed in the last five years owing to a number of discoveries that have expanded scientific understanding of Supermassive Black Holes and how they help in the formation of galaxies.

One of the main factors that have delayed and inhibited scientific understanding of the Black Holes for a long time has been the fact that Supermassive Black Holes are very large to an extent that they swallow in any light, which means it is quite difficult to see them.  For a long time, astronomers have been using very power Hubble Space Telescope looking into each and every galaxy to see if they can find any meaningful information on Supermassive Black Holes. Since it has become difficult to see these Holes, scientists have now been looking for the basic effects of the massive gravity which hurls stars around them at an immense speed (Melia 34).  On basis of search for their immense power, scientists have discovered more Supermassive Black Holes exist in each and every galaxy. They have been considered massive giants of destruction and can be spotted in the entire universe. This implies that Supermassive Black Holes are part and parcel of galaxy and they are actually important in their formation.

Observing a galaxy using a powerful telescope reveals that there is a giant black hole of apocalyptic proportions that lurks in each and every galaxy, including our own and even the Milky Way.  Scientific work reveals that at the heart of every galaxy, there is a large Black Hole that is larger, three billion times the size of the sun (Melia 34).  A single black hole is considered to be more powerful to an extent that it can destroy the whole solar system.  Further scientific researches also reveal that Supermassive Black Holes tend to suck stars and gas, which are the heart of every galaxy.

Evidence of Supermassive Black Holes
Supermassive Black Holes have been indicated and illustrated in various telescope and X-ray images taken from different galaxies.  The following image shows Supermassive Black Hole

It has also been observed that the strongest evidence to date of Supermassive Black Holes is that of Sagittarius A.  The evidence based on the data from ESO and Keck Telescope reveals that the Earths galactic central hole can be calculated to be 4.1 million solar masses. It has been generally accepted that every galaxy contains a Supermassive Black Hole (Melia 34).  The mass of this hole and the velocity of dispersion of the galaxy provide an important correlation through M-sigma relation which gives strong indication that the black hole could give rise to galaxies. More evidence on existence of Supermassive Black Holes was presented on January 2010 during American Astronomical Society meting by Jule Comerford from University of California who showed images taken using W.M Keck Observatory and Hubble Space Telescope which shows 33 merged galaxies containing Supermassive Black Holes.

How is Supermassive Black Holes formed

Currently, there is little understanding of the process behind the formation of the Supermassive Black Holes. There are number of theories that have been postulated to explain the process of formation.  One of the models is based on the slow accretion of matters which starts from black hole barely the size of the stellar.  Another model is based on large gas cloud which collapses into relativistic star the size of hundred thousands solar masses (Begelman 2006, p. 290). Owing to radial perturbation, the star could become unstable and eventually collapse into a black hole even without any explosion. Another model argues that they could be formed from dense stellar cluster which undergoes core-collapse due to negative heat capacity in the solar system that drives velocity dispersion.

However, most scientists have supported the idea that Supermassive Black Holes are formed from primordial black holes originating from the Big Bang. It has been postulated that about 200 million years after the Big Bang, the universe had changed greatly and it was a quite different place (Begelman 2006, p. 295).  This was a period which could be described as dark ages as there were no stars and no star light. The first star, Population III stars, could have been formed when hydrogen and helium cooled enough to clamp together, which means they then collapsed and initiated a nuclear fusion. At the time when the stars were being formed, the universe was full of dark matter which could have fueled the formation of stars. These stars could have provided the base for formation of Supermassive Black Holes as they swallowed large quantities of matter over a period of millions of years.  There has been theoretical proposition of a gas cloud collapsing and forming a Supermassive Black Holes (Begelman 2006, p. 292).  It has also been postulated that there was a possibility of star-like black holes merging together to form a massive black hole. 
                      
The picture above shows NGC 624, which is a galaxy found 400 million light years from the Milky Way.  In the picture which was taken from Hubble Space Telescope and Chandra X-ray Observation, two black holes are coming close to one another and in millions of years, they are expected to merge and form one Supermassive Black Holes after the dust has settled.

What is the implication of Submassive Black Holes

There has been important question on how the giant black holes will affect the galaxies around Earth.  This question has startled most astronomers but recent research shows that while they are quite destructive, they may be important in creation of galaxies which they themselves live in.  Scientists have for long not found any explanation on how gases condensed to form the universe we live in but Supermassive Black Holes could be an important link that will assist them in order to explain cooling of these gases (BBC 2000). The gravity of Supermassive Black Holes could trigger cooling of gases while churning of gases could give rise to new stars, planets, and even life. While Supermassive Black Hole in our galaxy could be the reasons why we are alive, it could also pose a great danger. Scientists have shown that in 3 billion years, our galaxy could collide with the neighboring galaxy, Andromeda which may result in apocalypse force that will throw Earth out of the solar system (BBC 2000).

Cigar Galaxy.

The cigar galaxy was discovered in the year 1774 by Johann elert bode. It is also known by other names like M82, an acronym for Messier 82 and NGC 3034. The star is known for its high star producing capability making it an archetype of the class of galaxies known as star busting. It is categorized as uneven and somehow deformed in its disk shape (fromert H.  kronberg, 2009). Its location is about twelve light years from the earth and it mostly appears to the north of sky called spring in the constellation of galaxies called ursa majorgreat bear.  In appearance, it has the shape of an elongated disk due to a tilt of the disk from the direction of the viewing angle. The galaxy has also a network of cut stripped clouds and trails that are flame like made of smoldering hydrogen that arise from its core (ESA, 2006).

Its star forming ability is remarkable. In its central core, new stars are continuously born at a rate that is tenfold than that of other galaxies like the Milky Way. These stars also forms discharge radiation and other particles that are charged which form a phenomenon called stellar wind. These stellar winds pouring out of the stars join to form a gigantic super wind which has the capability of compressing sufficient gas that trigger the formation of other millions of stars and production of clouds of highly ionized and hot hydrogen gas on top and below the galaxy. The juvenile stars that are produced join together to form clusters.  These clusters also assemble to form patches of bright. Starburst clumps in the core of the M82. Individual clusters of the   clumps can only be identified using high resolution Hubble imaging technology (ESA, 2006).

Although the galaxy is irregular in structure, in 2005 two spiral projections that are symmetrical were found emanating from the galaxy using near infrared imaging technology. They were discovered by extracting a disk that was exponential and axisymetric out of the images from NIR.The projections were observed to be bluer than the galaxy itself and somehow trailing in appearance .The projections were not visible using other imaging technologies due to the galaxies high on surface intense brightness, its orientation from the direction of the angle in which it is viewed and the presence of a web of unclear filaments in the ocular images of other imaging technologies.

M82 is the brilliant of the galaxies in the infrared light spectrum. It is said to exhibit what is called Infrared excess because its wavelength is mainly in this range of wavelength (Fromert  Kronberg, 2006).
   
The galaxy forms a conspicuous pair with another galaxy M81 its neighbor. This galaxy has a profound influence on the structure and activities of m82 because it interferes with its core through tidal waves when the two come into close encounter. It is noted in various studies that the tidal waves formed by gravity have continually deformed m82 for the last a hundred million years which has caused a considerable increase in the its stars forming ability (Klein, 2001). The site also records that the last encounter occurred around two to five million years ago that resulted in an increase in cluster distribution and more concerted star bursting process.
   
The core of m82 is the starburst region, its diameter is around 500pc and there are four bright clumps regions on the surface named A to D corresponding to either each of the x-ray radio or infrared frequencies of the spectrum. The super winds that form during star formation are concentrated in the clump A and C. It is also believed that there are many unclear clusters from the angle in which the galaxy is viewed. The galaxy also has a huge black hole in its core with a mass of thirty million solar masses.  Another intermediate black hole is also present with a mass of about two to five hundred solar masses. This black hole causes fluctuations in emission of X-ray radiation at a site which is about six hundred light years away of the core.
   
The European space agency noted that the galaxy is dotted with pale looking stars which surround the surface of the main galaxy. The stars are about a million in total and twenty light million years crossway the galaxy (Klein, 2001). The agency also proposes that the brisk star forming ability of this galaxy will at some time reduce because when the process is too rapid, it obliterates the material required for making other stars rendering the process self hindering. The agency also predicts that due to this self limiting mechanism, the starburst will eventually decrease in about ten million years to come.