Any discussion about the Mariner and Voyager space programs would have to include the history of the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), because NASA managed both Mariner and Voyager space programs. The longevity of any space program is directly linked to NASAs history, and the problems that NASA encountered, while trying to promote and launch the space programs.
NASA is an independent, civilian United States government agency, established in 1958, as direct result of the Soviet Unions launch of their first satellite (named Sputnik 1), on October 4, 1957. NASA was created to compete with the Russians, on space projects, and is credited for improving international cooperation, exploration of the universe and solar system, and providing explanation how the earth and the solar system functions. Currently, NASA oversees all space science projects, operates the space shuttle, and launches approximately half of all military space missions.
There was great support for NASA, during the John F. Kennedy administration (1960s), and government accepted the challenge to land a man on the moon, in the future, while they saw themselves competing with Russia. During the time of initial creation, NASA was viewed as a necessary part of the government, and the United States Congress funded various programs, acquired many facilities, and hired many employees for the space projects. During the 1960s, the United States became a strong leader of space exploration.
The positive atmosphere changed, however, when times were not so peaceful. As the United States moved into 1970, the unpopular Vietnam war shifted the focus away from space exploration, and the budgets for NASA programs were cut dramatically. NASAs annual budget, which had reached 5 billion in the mid-1960s, and stood at almost 4 billion in 1969, was reduced to 3.7 billion in 1970 and just over 3 billion in 1974.
NASAs popularity never fully recovered to the point where the government agreed to fund the all the space programs that NASA had planned, and NASA was a continuous struggle to acquire funds, to attain the goals that NASA had established. On the one hand, the United States wanted to maintain their position as a worldwide space explorer, however, the budget committees would not provide enough funds for NASA to attain or maintain the programs they planned. It was a downhill struggle, and space program survival became dependent upon available funds.
NASA restructured and downsized several times, from the large organization of which it began, to a smaller, more controlled government agency. The United States did not want to forfeit the space program to Russia, although they were never in the position to provide unlimited funds for any of the future space programs. Ultimately, the United States space programs progress and successes suffered, due to severe cuts in NASAs requested budgets, year after year. Many of the space programs were started, and never finished, because the cost of repairing problems. Many of the programs had to be consolidated, because the government would not allow unnecessary project spending.
Despite continuous problems, rising costs, and funding cuts by the government committees, NASA provided space programs that brought a rich knowledge of the universe. There is no question that progress would have been further ahead, if more support and funding would have been available to NASA, for the space programs. Several space programs survived to produce amazing information. Two of the most successful United States space programs, that survived the ongoing budget cuts, are the Mariner and Voyager space programs.
Mariner Space Program
The Mariner Space Program survived because it was in the human interest category there was a popular interest in visiting the planet Mars, and the Mariner project was specifically created to do flyby and take pictures of Mars, as well as investigate Venus and Mercury. NASAs funding were far less than they had requested, and not supported, leaving NASA with the thoughts that Mariner was doomed, from the beginning. The 5.25 billion approved by Congress was 195 million less than the agency had requested. Despite budget cuts, NASAs panel stressed the importance to investigate these nearby planets, for possible use in the future, and the project was given priority however, the government wanted NASA to develop and complete the program in less than half the time.
All Mariner spacecraft were based on a hexagonal or octagonal bus, which housed all of the electronics, and to which all components were attached, such as antennae, cameras, propulsion, and power sources.
Mariner 2 (also known as Mariner-Venus 1962) was launched shortly after, on August 27, 1962.
Mariner 2 was a backup for Mariner 1, and on December 1962, was the first to successfully flyby Venus.
Mariner 3 was launched November 5, 1964. Its destination was Mars, but failed when it was unable to use its solar panels to energize its batteries. Mariner 3 remains in solar orbit.
Mariner 4 (also known as Mariner-Mars) was launched on November 28, 1964. It was designed to observe Mars and relay information to Earth. On December 21, 1967, communication with Mariner 4 was terminated, due to the exhaustion of the gas supply, an altitude decrease, and weakness of signal.
Mariner 5 (also known as Mariner Venus 67) was launched June 14, 1967. Mariner 5 was a backup for
Mariner 4. The spacecraft instruments measured interplanetary magnetic fields, charged particles, and plasmas, as well as the radio refractivity and UV emissions of the Venusian atmosphere. The mission was termed a success. (Mariner 1962-1975 httpfiler. case.edusjr16advanced20th_far_mariner.html January 11, 2006)
Mariner 6 (also known as Mariner F, Mariner Mars 69A) was launched February 24, 1969, and Mariner 7 (also known as Mariner G. Mariner Mars 69B) was launched March 27, 1969. The primary purpose of Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 was to investigate the surface and atmosphere of Mars by close flybys, and relay the information back to Earth however, there was no backup equipment for all the information accepted, which was later corrected, on future models.
Mariners 6 and 7 were identical teammates in a two-spacecraft mission to Mars. Mariner 6 was launched on February 24, 1969, followed by Mariner 7 on March 21, 1969.
Mariner 8 (also known as Mariner-H) was launched May 8, 1971, and was part of the Mariner Mars 71 project. It consisted of two spacecraft (Mariners H and I) that performed separately, yet complementary, intended to go into Mars orbit and relay data and information back to Earth. Mariner 8 did not launch correctly, and only one of the two spacecraft was functional.
Mariner 9 (also known as Mariner-1, Mariner Mars 71) was launched May 30, 1971. Mariner 9 arrived at Mars on November 14, 1971, after a 167 day flight, had mapped 70 of the surface of Mars. A 15 minute 23 second rocket burn put the spacecraft into Mars orbit, making Mariner 9 the first spacecraft to orbit another planet. Imaging of the surface of Mars by Mariner 9 was delayed by a dust storm that started on September 22, 1971, in the Noachis region. The storm quickly grew into one of the largest global storms ever observed on Mars. (Mariner 1962-1975)
Mariner 10 (also known as Mariner-J, Mariner VenusMercury 73) was launched November 3, 1973. Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to use advanced computer and solar technology to orbit Venus and Mercury and provide detailed information. Mariner 10 flew by Mercury three times. Cameras were left on, to prevent low temperatures, because heaters for the television failed. Engineers tested and found a low nitrogen supply, and commands were sent to the spacecraft to INCLUDEPICTURE httpupload.wikimedia.orgwikipediacommons660Mariner10.gif MERGEFORMATINET Mariner 10 (2005) NASA
Voyager Space Program
The Voyager Space Program began in the Spring of 1960, when NASA had money to fund Americas long-range plans for space programs. Voyager was an unmanned space mission, designed to orbit Venus and Mars, and acquire information about the environment, atmosphere, and surfaces of both planets. The program was originally designed to orbit Jupiter and Saturn also budget cuts limited the program to orbit Venus and Mars only, which scientists felt were more important.
To Congress, in 1965, the Voyager space program appeared to be just another space program, on NASAs list of many. Pressure was on Congress to keep all costs down however, NASA had invested thousands of hours already, in the Voyager, and did not want to let go.
Further friction developed between the two departments, responsible for the Voyagers success. NASA headquarters and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in Pasadena, California, had completely different opinions of how things should be accomplished. The government viewed these departmental differences as NASAs inability to manage their programs, and Congress was convinced not to provide funding for Voyager. Ultimately, this inability to agree, between the two Voyager teams, was a major reason the government was swayed to terminate this space program.
One of the problems that NASA encountered was that Voyager would need to be much larger than Mariner was, and needed more developed equipment to accomplish the tasks with the additional distances. There were needs for more developed designs for the spacecraft. This meant NASA would need more money for the Voyager, than for the Mariner, and the need for more money created more problems. Congress resisted the Voyager program, since money was already provided for other programs. In addition to the higher cost of Voyager, the unpopular Vietnam war was still an issue, limiting additional funds. NASA approached the budget committee several times for money, to fund the Voyager space program, and was refused funding ever time. Eventually, Congress halted all work on the Voyager, and the program was abruptly stopped.
Many subcontractors were brought into the projects, to provide designs and products necessary for the Voyager, and high, competitive costs of the subcontractors were a large portion of the budget, they had not encountered before. A host of technical questions erupted, also, including the question of did NASA have the manpower, at this point, to complete the project. All of the technical questions had to be answered before they could begin construction. The mission was divided into phases, to handle the large scope of the plan. All issues and problems were directly related to the budget problem of Voyager. NASA secretly continued with Voyagers plans, while Congress had postponed the program for years, and suspended the program, completely.
NASA was determined to reach Mars before the Soviet Union, and cancelled further work on the Mariner space program, to use the funds for the Voyager space program. They believed a larger vehicle would be more capable for this challenge. Unfortunately, the news media found out what NASA was planning, and the Voyager space program was postponed for another two years. Each time the project was postponed, it was estimated it cost were as high as 2 billion, and these extra costs were not included in Congress budget costs. A major breakthrough occurred, in 1967, when President Johnson allocated funds for the Voyager space program, and stated he wanted the space program to continue, for near future launches to Mars.
The Voyager space program underwent management structure, and the existing California office was abolished. The program restarted at a slow pace, focusing on the deadline stated. With the Vietnam war continuing, a budget deficit developed, that forced President Johnson to reduce unnecessary expenditures and increase taxes. The Office of Space Science and Applications had asked for 695 million for 1968 (an increase of 88 million over 1967) to provide funds for Voyager (71.5 million) the House reduced the Voyager budget by 21.5 million. NASA would have to reevaluate its space science activities. In late June, a joint House-Senate Conference Committee worked out a compromise budget that restored 42 million to Voyager for 1968.
This occurred during a time, in the United States that included riots and other violent civil rights gatherings, not to mention resentment because of the involvement of America in the Vietnam war. President Johnson was unable to fight the overwhelming desire of Congress, and the Voyager space program was cut, along with the Mariner space program. Even though the space programs were cut, NASA continued, on a smaller scale. The Voyager space probes are probably two of the most famous space probes in history, for they provided us with our first detailed close-up views and scans of the outer planets.
Voyager 1 (also known as Mariner JupiterSaturn A) was launched September 5, 1977), after Voyager 2. Voyager 1 did a flyby for Jupiter (March 5, 1979) and Saturn (November 13, 1980) only, taking pictures of both planets. After nearly nine years of dormancy, Voyager 1s cameras were once again turned on to take a series of pictures. (httpwww.absoluteastronomy. comtopics Mariner_program 2010) On February 14, 1990, Voyager 1 looked back from whence it came and took the first family portrait of the solar system, a mosaic of 60 frames of the Sun and six of the planets (Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) as seen from outside the solar system. After this final look back, the cameras on Voyager 1 were once again turned off. (Voyagers 1977-present httpfiler. case.edusjr16advanced20th_far_voyagers.html September 13, 2006) If nothing happens to them,.
Mariner program
The Mariner program was a program conducted by the American space agency NASA that launched a series of robotic interplanetary probes designed to investigate Mars, Venus and Mercury...
designated Mariner 11 and Mariner 12, respectively. They were then moved into a separate program named Mariner Jupiter-Saturn, later retitled Voyager, because it was felt that the probes designs had moved sufficiently far from the Mariner family that they merited a separate name.
Both the Mariner and Voyager space programs were created to establish the United States as an innovative force in universe and solar system, through NASA. NASA accomplished their goals, although the major budget cuts became great obstacles, and made growth very difficult. Mariner and Voyager space programs are both considered successful, taking knowledge to the limits and beyond what was ever expected. Modern technology and equipment, combined with innovative design, assisted each space program, and allowed the vehicles to relay information back to Earth, with NASAs ever-continuing hunger to know more about what outer-space is all about, and how Earth relates to the whole solar system. Without the Mariner and Voyager space programs, the United States would not be a competing leader in space knowledge, today. The United States can look forward to bigger and more curious space journeys, because we have reached the plateaus attained through the success, persistence, and determination of those involved in the Mariner and Voyager space programs.
NASA is an independent, civilian United States government agency, established in 1958, as direct result of the Soviet Unions launch of their first satellite (named Sputnik 1), on October 4, 1957. NASA was created to compete with the Russians, on space projects, and is credited for improving international cooperation, exploration of the universe and solar system, and providing explanation how the earth and the solar system functions. Currently, NASA oversees all space science projects, operates the space shuttle, and launches approximately half of all military space missions.
There was great support for NASA, during the John F. Kennedy administration (1960s), and government accepted the challenge to land a man on the moon, in the future, while they saw themselves competing with Russia. During the time of initial creation, NASA was viewed as a necessary part of the government, and the United States Congress funded various programs, acquired many facilities, and hired many employees for the space projects. During the 1960s, the United States became a strong leader of space exploration.
The positive atmosphere changed, however, when times were not so peaceful. As the United States moved into 1970, the unpopular Vietnam war shifted the focus away from space exploration, and the budgets for NASA programs were cut dramatically. NASAs annual budget, which had reached 5 billion in the mid-1960s, and stood at almost 4 billion in 1969, was reduced to 3.7 billion in 1970 and just over 3 billion in 1974.
NASAs popularity never fully recovered to the point where the government agreed to fund the all the space programs that NASA had planned, and NASA was a continuous struggle to acquire funds, to attain the goals that NASA had established. On the one hand, the United States wanted to maintain their position as a worldwide space explorer, however, the budget committees would not provide enough funds for NASA to attain or maintain the programs they planned. It was a downhill struggle, and space program survival became dependent upon available funds.
NASA restructured and downsized several times, from the large organization of which it began, to a smaller, more controlled government agency. The United States did not want to forfeit the space program to Russia, although they were never in the position to provide unlimited funds for any of the future space programs. Ultimately, the United States space programs progress and successes suffered, due to severe cuts in NASAs requested budgets, year after year. Many of the space programs were started, and never finished, because the cost of repairing problems. Many of the programs had to be consolidated, because the government would not allow unnecessary project spending.
Despite continuous problems, rising costs, and funding cuts by the government committees, NASA provided space programs that brought a rich knowledge of the universe. There is no question that progress would have been further ahead, if more support and funding would have been available to NASA, for the space programs. Several space programs survived to produce amazing information. Two of the most successful United States space programs, that survived the ongoing budget cuts, are the Mariner and Voyager space programs.
Mariner Space Program
The Mariner Space Program survived because it was in the human interest category there was a popular interest in visiting the planet Mars, and the Mariner project was specifically created to do flyby and take pictures of Mars, as well as investigate Venus and Mercury. NASAs funding were far less than they had requested, and not supported, leaving NASA with the thoughts that Mariner was doomed, from the beginning. The 5.25 billion approved by Congress was 195 million less than the agency had requested. Despite budget cuts, NASAs panel stressed the importance to investigate these nearby planets, for possible use in the future, and the project was given priority however, the government wanted NASA to develop and complete the program in less than half the time.
All Mariner spacecraft were based on a hexagonal or octagonal bus, which housed all of the electronics, and to which all components were attached, such as antennae, cameras, propulsion, and power sources.
Mariner 2 (also known as Mariner-Venus 1962) was launched shortly after, on August 27, 1962.
Mariner 2 was a backup for Mariner 1, and on December 1962, was the first to successfully flyby Venus.
Mariner 3 was launched November 5, 1964. Its destination was Mars, but failed when it was unable to use its solar panels to energize its batteries. Mariner 3 remains in solar orbit.
Mariner 4 (also known as Mariner-Mars) was launched on November 28, 1964. It was designed to observe Mars and relay information to Earth. On December 21, 1967, communication with Mariner 4 was terminated, due to the exhaustion of the gas supply, an altitude decrease, and weakness of signal.
Mariner 5 (also known as Mariner Venus 67) was launched June 14, 1967. Mariner 5 was a backup for
Mariner 4. The spacecraft instruments measured interplanetary magnetic fields, charged particles, and plasmas, as well as the radio refractivity and UV emissions of the Venusian atmosphere. The mission was termed a success. (Mariner 1962-1975 httpfiler. case.edusjr16advanced20th_far_mariner.html January 11, 2006)
Mariner 6 (also known as Mariner F, Mariner Mars 69A) was launched February 24, 1969, and Mariner 7 (also known as Mariner G. Mariner Mars 69B) was launched March 27, 1969. The primary purpose of Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 was to investigate the surface and atmosphere of Mars by close flybys, and relay the information back to Earth however, there was no backup equipment for all the information accepted, which was later corrected, on future models.
Mariners 6 and 7 were identical teammates in a two-spacecraft mission to Mars. Mariner 6 was launched on February 24, 1969, followed by Mariner 7 on March 21, 1969.
Mariner 8 (also known as Mariner-H) was launched May 8, 1971, and was part of the Mariner Mars 71 project. It consisted of two spacecraft (Mariners H and I) that performed separately, yet complementary, intended to go into Mars orbit and relay data and information back to Earth. Mariner 8 did not launch correctly, and only one of the two spacecraft was functional.
Mariner 9 (also known as Mariner-1, Mariner Mars 71) was launched May 30, 1971. Mariner 9 arrived at Mars on November 14, 1971, after a 167 day flight, had mapped 70 of the surface of Mars. A 15 minute 23 second rocket burn put the spacecraft into Mars orbit, making Mariner 9 the first spacecraft to orbit another planet. Imaging of the surface of Mars by Mariner 9 was delayed by a dust storm that started on September 22, 1971, in the Noachis region. The storm quickly grew into one of the largest global storms ever observed on Mars. (Mariner 1962-1975)
Mariner 10 (also known as Mariner-J, Mariner VenusMercury 73) was launched November 3, 1973. Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to use advanced computer and solar technology to orbit Venus and Mercury and provide detailed information. Mariner 10 flew by Mercury three times. Cameras were left on, to prevent low temperatures, because heaters for the television failed. Engineers tested and found a low nitrogen supply, and commands were sent to the spacecraft to INCLUDEPICTURE httpupload.wikimedia.orgwikipediacommons660Mariner10.gif MERGEFORMATINET Mariner 10 (2005) NASA
Voyager Space Program
The Voyager Space Program began in the Spring of 1960, when NASA had money to fund Americas long-range plans for space programs. Voyager was an unmanned space mission, designed to orbit Venus and Mars, and acquire information about the environment, atmosphere, and surfaces of both planets. The program was originally designed to orbit Jupiter and Saturn also budget cuts limited the program to orbit Venus and Mars only, which scientists felt were more important.
To Congress, in 1965, the Voyager space program appeared to be just another space program, on NASAs list of many. Pressure was on Congress to keep all costs down however, NASA had invested thousands of hours already, in the Voyager, and did not want to let go.
Further friction developed between the two departments, responsible for the Voyagers success. NASA headquarters and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in Pasadena, California, had completely different opinions of how things should be accomplished. The government viewed these departmental differences as NASAs inability to manage their programs, and Congress was convinced not to provide funding for Voyager. Ultimately, this inability to agree, between the two Voyager teams, was a major reason the government was swayed to terminate this space program.
One of the problems that NASA encountered was that Voyager would need to be much larger than Mariner was, and needed more developed equipment to accomplish the tasks with the additional distances. There were needs for more developed designs for the spacecraft. This meant NASA would need more money for the Voyager, than for the Mariner, and the need for more money created more problems. Congress resisted the Voyager program, since money was already provided for other programs. In addition to the higher cost of Voyager, the unpopular Vietnam war was still an issue, limiting additional funds. NASA approached the budget committee several times for money, to fund the Voyager space program, and was refused funding ever time. Eventually, Congress halted all work on the Voyager, and the program was abruptly stopped.
Many subcontractors were brought into the projects, to provide designs and products necessary for the Voyager, and high, competitive costs of the subcontractors were a large portion of the budget, they had not encountered before. A host of technical questions erupted, also, including the question of did NASA have the manpower, at this point, to complete the project. All of the technical questions had to be answered before they could begin construction. The mission was divided into phases, to handle the large scope of the plan. All issues and problems were directly related to the budget problem of Voyager. NASA secretly continued with Voyagers plans, while Congress had postponed the program for years, and suspended the program, completely.
NASA was determined to reach Mars before the Soviet Union, and cancelled further work on the Mariner space program, to use the funds for the Voyager space program. They believed a larger vehicle would be more capable for this challenge. Unfortunately, the news media found out what NASA was planning, and the Voyager space program was postponed for another two years. Each time the project was postponed, it was estimated it cost were as high as 2 billion, and these extra costs were not included in Congress budget costs. A major breakthrough occurred, in 1967, when President Johnson allocated funds for the Voyager space program, and stated he wanted the space program to continue, for near future launches to Mars.
The Voyager space program underwent management structure, and the existing California office was abolished. The program restarted at a slow pace, focusing on the deadline stated. With the Vietnam war continuing, a budget deficit developed, that forced President Johnson to reduce unnecessary expenditures and increase taxes. The Office of Space Science and Applications had asked for 695 million for 1968 (an increase of 88 million over 1967) to provide funds for Voyager (71.5 million) the House reduced the Voyager budget by 21.5 million. NASA would have to reevaluate its space science activities. In late June, a joint House-Senate Conference Committee worked out a compromise budget that restored 42 million to Voyager for 1968.
This occurred during a time, in the United States that included riots and other violent civil rights gatherings, not to mention resentment because of the involvement of America in the Vietnam war. President Johnson was unable to fight the overwhelming desire of Congress, and the Voyager space program was cut, along with the Mariner space program. Even though the space programs were cut, NASA continued, on a smaller scale. The Voyager space probes are probably two of the most famous space probes in history, for they provided us with our first detailed close-up views and scans of the outer planets.
Voyager 1 (also known as Mariner JupiterSaturn A) was launched September 5, 1977), after Voyager 2. Voyager 1 did a flyby for Jupiter (March 5, 1979) and Saturn (November 13, 1980) only, taking pictures of both planets. After nearly nine years of dormancy, Voyager 1s cameras were once again turned on to take a series of pictures. (httpwww.absoluteastronomy. comtopics Mariner_program 2010) On February 14, 1990, Voyager 1 looked back from whence it came and took the first family portrait of the solar system, a mosaic of 60 frames of the Sun and six of the planets (Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) as seen from outside the solar system. After this final look back, the cameras on Voyager 1 were once again turned off. (Voyagers 1977-present httpfiler. case.edusjr16advanced20th_far_voyagers.html September 13, 2006) If nothing happens to them,.
Mariner program
The Mariner program was a program conducted by the American space agency NASA that launched a series of robotic interplanetary probes designed to investigate Mars, Venus and Mercury...
designated Mariner 11 and Mariner 12, respectively. They were then moved into a separate program named Mariner Jupiter-Saturn, later retitled Voyager, because it was felt that the probes designs had moved sufficiently far from the Mariner family that they merited a separate name.
Both the Mariner and Voyager space programs were created to establish the United States as an innovative force in universe and solar system, through NASA. NASA accomplished their goals, although the major budget cuts became great obstacles, and made growth very difficult. Mariner and Voyager space programs are both considered successful, taking knowledge to the limits and beyond what was ever expected. Modern technology and equipment, combined with innovative design, assisted each space program, and allowed the vehicles to relay information back to Earth, with NASAs ever-continuing hunger to know more about what outer-space is all about, and how Earth relates to the whole solar system. Without the Mariner and Voyager space programs, the United States would not be a competing leader in space knowledge, today. The United States can look forward to bigger and more curious space journeys, because we have reached the plateaus attained through the success, persistence, and determination of those involved in the Mariner and Voyager space programs.
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